Jigsaw 2

A is for Astronomy

People have looked at the stars for thousands of years. Hence astronomy, or the 'naming of stars' is an ancient science. Stonehenge in England and the pyramids of Egypt suggest that the principles of observing the heavens have been known for many millennia, for both of these ancient monuments were used as observatories. One thing that they got wrong initially was the movement of the planets. Ptolemy believed that the earth was at the centre of the universe and that everything revolved around the earth as a fixed centre, including the sun. It was not until Copernicus came on the scene that perceptions changed. In 1543 he published his book 'De revolutionibus orbium coelestium', in which he explained his theory of a heliocentric universe, in which the earth travelled around the sun. This was revolutionary stuff and in 1616 the catholic church banned his books, as they considered such theories against their doctrine. Copernicus was backed up by the findings of the brilliant Galileo, who was also branded a heretic, and imprisoned.

With a simple telescope, very primitive by today's standards, Galileo looked at the solar system. Of course today we know a great deal more about our solar system than Galileo ever did. For instance, modern cosmology, an allied science to astronomy, suggests that the solar system was formed five billion years ago. We also know a great deal more about the physical nature of the planets than our predecessors. The planets can be split into two different groups: the four terrestrial planets, which are close to the sun, and the four Jovian, or Jupiter-like planets, which are beyond Mars. The terrestrial planets have hard surfaces, while the Jovian planets are for the most part made up of gases. The centre of the solar system is the sun. It is ninety-three million miles away from the earth. Like most stars the sun consists of hydrogen mainly. At the sun's core the hydrogen nucleus becomes helium. It is the same process at work as a hydrogen atomic bomb.

The planet nearest to the earth is the moon (239,000 miles). It is a matter of debate how the moon was formed: some believe the moon was formed at the same time as the earth from the same debris - others believe that the moon was a sphere passing the earth that got caught in the earth's gravitational pull. Yet another theory is that there was a massive collision with the earth involving a planet as big as Mars. The impact caused a huge piece of debris to break off which over time formed the moon. Today scientists are looking at moon rock to try to discern if there was ever life on the moon. So far it does not look as if this has ever been the case. The earth is the only planet which can sustain life. A lot of speculation used to surround the planet Mars, concerning extra-terrstrial life. But we know the atmosphere is very thin and deadly ultra violet rays can reach the surface of the planet. Mars is very cold compared to the earth, another fact which makes it difficult for it to support life. Mercury is too close to the sun to support anything which would resemble life (36 million miles). Temperatures are hot enough to melt many metals, whilst at night, the temperature can drop to -180 degrees centigrade.

With Venus it is the atmosphere which is quite lethal. It consists of carbon dioxide and sulphuric acid. Jupiter, which is the largest planet in the solar system (equatorial diameter 89,350 miles) is made up of mainly gas, i.e. hydrogen and helium. Like Jupiter, Saturn is composed of mainly hydrogen. Saturn is the planet which has a series of rings surrounding it: the rings are chunks of ice. It is a lesser known fact that Neptune similarly has rings. Neptune has an arresting sea-blue atmosphere and is orbited by seven moons. Uranus is another gas giant, but unlike Neptune or Jupiter, its clouds are largely featureless. Pluto is the planet which is furthest from the sun (3670 million miles away) and it has a moon Charon, which is very near to it (12,240 miles).

All of the planets in the solar system are now looked at by scientists with a view to colonization. Often this is only something to theorize about, but it can help to predict what generations of people far into the future might do when the earth becomes uninhabitable. It is a known fact that in two or three billion years time the earth will be too hot to sustain life, and there will have to be a mass exodus. Perhaps with global warming that time span will be brought forward dramatically. Where will future generations make for ? The moons of Jupiter might be a likely candidate. Of the sixteen moons Europa and Io could be suitable. It will take a lot of research to find out if it will ever be possible to live on these moons, but already scientists are asking such questions.

B is for Bacteria

Bacteria can only be seen through a microscope. They are some of the smallest living things and were first looked at by the Dutchman Anton Van Leeuwenhoek in the 1670's. It was not until the nineteenth century however, that bacteriology, or the study of bacteria, became a recognized science. It was the work of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch which pioneered advances in bacteriological study. Robert Koch was the first scientist to show that certain bacteria caused certain diseases. He found the bacteria that causes tuberculosis. Louis Pasteur investigated infectious diseases too and his research led to the science of immunology. It is because of their work that we know so much about bacteria today.

Bacteria exist everywhere, and it is true that there are many different kinds; thousands in fact. Koch and Pasteur dealt with the bacteria that are harmful to mankind, yet it is true that many bacteria are harmless to humans, in fact some can be helpful. The bacteria that live in the intestine for example, are essential to aiding our digestion. We could not do without them. They destroy other harmful organisms. The many kinds of harmful bacteria however, do a lot of damage. Pneumonia, typhoid fever, whooping cough etc., are all diseases caused by bacteria. The bacteria attack healthy cells and destroy them. The body fights back however, and white blood cells attack the bacteria. The blood produces antibodies that kill or weaken the invaders. Bacteria are tough however, they have a strong cell wall and like cells of all living things, the bacterial cells contain DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid. This controls a cell's growth and reproduction etc. Bacteria reproduce by binary fusion. Each cell divides into two identical cells and this process can go on indefinitely, hence it is not difficult to see the magnitude of their reproduction. If a cell has enough food over a billion bacteria can be produced in ten hours. Some of the most harmful bacteria are dangerous because of this and would be termed virulent.

Bacteria are divided into two groups according to their shape. Rod-shaped bacteria are termed 'bacilli', whilst round bacteria are called 'cocci'. Those like bent rods are termed 'vibrios', whilst spiral-shaped bacteria are termed 'spirilla' and 'spirochetes'. Some require oxygen to live and are called 'aerobes', whilst 'anaerobes' survive without oxygen. But it is true that bacteria can live just about anywhere - the air, water or soil. They can travel long distances in the air or be flushed through fast-running water currents. They can be carried on clothing or on utensils, such as cooking utensils, which could lead to food poisoning, and on other objects. The war against bacteria is a constant and ongoing one. The importance of cleanliness in hospitals is paramount, as there may be any amount of bacteria lurking, just waiting to strike.

C is for Clocks

From the earliest times man has wanted to measure time. From the crudest sundials of the ancient world to the most expensive clocks of more recent times man has found a way of expressing his interest in things horological. Over the last three hundred and fifty years many fine clocks have been produced. In 1650 the first one-year clock was invented.

All mechanical clocks have what is known as an escapement, i.e. the device which releases at regular intervals a train of wheels and pinions which are connected to the clock hands, and so allow the clock to keep time. Early clocks had what is called a verge escapement, and a short while later came the anchor escapement. The first domestic clock was the lantern clock and from the 1660's onwards came the bracket clocks which were suitable for table or mantelpiece. In France and Germany porcelain clocks were produced and then in 1810 the first carriage clock was produced by Breguet in Paris. Skeleton clocks, where the movement is exposed, evolved from mantel clocks produced in Paris.

Two important clockmakers in England were Knibb, producing clocks in the latter half of the seventeenth century and also Thomas Tompion, who produced longcase clocks, often using walnut or olivewood and sometimes featuring elaborate marquetry designs. Today the digital clock is very popular and is changing the face of timekeeping forever. Clocks with chimes and jingles and moving faces can also be found in jeweller's shops now and keeping time becomes something of an entertainment.

D is for Design

Design is important in all our daily lives. Whether it be on the wallpaper in our bedroom which we wake up to or the design on the cup we drink our bedtime cocoa from: design is part of the way we live. To some extent design is what makes the world an attractive place to live in. It is where the artist has been to work and left his indelible stamp on a whole range of items. Take a plate for example - it usually has a design. This consists of three constituents: colour, form and pattern. A plate will have a background colour, a distinct shape, probably round, but maybe hexagonal or octagonal and it will nearly always have a pattern: flowers are popular, but maybe it will be a contemporary design of geometrical shapes - circles, squares or triangles.

Interior design today is a highly sophisticated business. There are entire ranges of colour-co-ordinated fabrics, including curtains and carpets, and also wallpapers, lampshades and even suites of furniture which are made to match other fabrics. These matches are based on colour and pattern. The designers which think up these ranges of room co-ordinates usually have a background in Art, but increasingly today they will have a knowledge of computers, because computer graphics are the latest tools of design. Computer graphics generate highly complicated designs, often abstract in nature or strikingly geometric. Still popular however, are classical designs from Greek, Roman and Egyptian cultures. History still plays a part in the creation of all things new !

E is for Ecology

Ecology is a significant branch of biology. It deals with the relationship between living organisms and their environment. The interplay of these two things forms what we term an ecosystem. In a sense you could say the whole world is just one big ecosystem, but it would be unwieldy to study the subject from this point of view. Much more manageable ecosystems to study would be, for instance, a peatbog, a pond, or a forest etc. An ecologist wants to know why a given species is present in specific numbers in an ecosystem. He also aims to study that species' interaction with all the other live organisms also present, what we term 'biotic factors'. He also wishes to study that species' interaction with the physical or 'abiotic' factors. Biotic factors include associations between organisms including symbiosis, where the organisms live attached to each other, and parasitism where one organism feeds off the other. Predation is less direct an association than between parasite and host, whilst there can also be co-operation between organisms, where they live together as social animals - for example bees, wasps, termites and that very social of all insects, ants. Abiotic factors which determine an organism's life in its environment include temperature, amount of light, and also humidity. Other important abiotic factors are soil, humus, and in aquatic environments, the difference between sea and fresh water.

In all ecosystems there is a food chain. One organism eats another and so on up the chain. But because an animal's diet is often fairly varied and one species of animal may be part of the food of numerous other animals, interactions come into play which are termed 'food webs'. If we are to compare these eating habits, it is a good idea to group together all the organisms which have similar food habits. When we do this a phenomenon called the pyramid of numbers appears: organisms at the bottom of the food chain are very prolific, whilst those at the top of the pyramid, the last ones to consume, if you like, are comparatively few in number.

Just as organisms are part of a food chain, man too is involved. He is the ultimate consumer. it is the student of ecology who looks at food supply and also human population or demography. The population around the world is rising fast. Even if the world can feed everybody, which it certainly has the potential to do, we must achieve an equilibrium so births do not outrageously outweigh deaths. Efforts to control birth-rate will greatly ease the demands made on the world's resources.

F is for Furniture

The world of antiques is a very vast one, so it would be impossible to describe our great array of English furniture in any detail here. Suffice it to say that certain names in the history of furniture-making stand out: Thomas Chippendale is one such name. Inspired by the Rococo style in the reign of George III, he was also influenced by the earlier Gothic style. Probably best-known for his chairs, they were broad and generously proportioned, he made much use of carved openwork to decorate the backs. Nowadays any furniture which reflects his style is referred to as 'Chippendale'.

Another important name in furniture design is that of Sheraton. He tended to replace the earlier oval and shield backs with straight lines and simpler, squarer designs. For decoration Sheraton was keen on inlay and veneering. The most popular wood at the time was rosewood and this could be used as a finish to some other wood i.e. a veneer or laying on top of a base wood. Satinwood was also popular. A particularly expensive wood called amboyne was sometimes used for the best pieces. Mahogany, always a favourite, retained much of its popularity. Mahogany was in fact used particularly by Hepplewhite. A lot of his work was carved. He specialized in settees and occasionally used the French cabriole leg. A cabriole leg or 'bandy leg' starts from just under the seat or table, curves outwards at the knee and then curves backwards to the foot, being tapered as it does so. As well as settees Hepplewhite made many designs for chests of drawers or 'commodes'. Today one can come across many forgeries of these famous furniture-makers designs. It takes skill and many years of experience to sometimes identify the real thing. Often genuine and authentic pieces are very expensive.

G is for Glass

The art of the glass-maker is an age-old one. Men have been making glass for over 3,500 years. Glass was first produced in western Asia. At first, mainly glass beads were produced and it was not until later, in the sixteenth and fifteenth centuries BC, that larger vessels were made. Egypt established a glass industry during the fifteenth century BC and it was in the reign of Tuthmosis III that the first vessels appeared. Such vessels were made by the 'core' technique. A modelled core (mud bound with straw) was fixed to a metal rod and covered with molten glass. The outer surface was then marvered (or smothered) and when the glass had cooled the rod would be removed and the core picked out. This initial technique for producing glass was laborious and difficult to accomplish skilfully. It was not until the first century AD in the Roman Empire that the technique of glass-blowing originated. It meant that there was now more flexibility in the type of glass produced and many more shapes could be fashioned by the glass-blower's skill. There was an expansion of factories throughout Europe whilst Alexandrian workers in Egypt continued to specialize in coloured glass; they did not take to the glass-blowing technique until the second century AD.

Glassmaking did not really come to England until the building of the monasteries and cathedrals from the seventh century AD onward. In the north-east of England it was Benedict Biscop who encouraged french glassmakers to visit Britain, introducing stained glass to the churches of the area. The monastery at Jarrow in the time of Bede would certainly have benefited. Once this innovation caught on, it became a tradition that was to last for hundreds of years, with glassmaking factories becoming major industries lasting well into the victorian era and beyond.

In the nineteenth century a new development in glass production was that of mechanical pressing. America took the lead in world markets, but places like Sunderland in England were important centres for glass production. The glass had rather a dull finish, so to make up for this every inch of the surface was covered with decoration. 1823-50 was known as the Lacy period, because of the fussy decoration on the glass. In the first half of the nineteenth century new colouring techniques were evolved in the Bohemian workshops. In Britain blue, green and amethyst were the most popular colours. Possibly the best lead-crystal, which is still produced today, comes from Ireland.
The famous 'Waterford Crystal' is known the world over. Because of the versatility of glass we will always need it. Today it is essential in all sorts of modern industries: fibre optics are used in computer technology, telephones, and a whole range of digital technology applications.

H is for Heraldry

Heraldry arose when there was a need to distinguish one side from another in battle. With increasing use of armour it became increasingly difficult to see who was who. Some kind of insignia or emblem on a shield, or something worn on a tunic, became a vital part of combat. So, heraldry was born. Today we see such distinguishing modes of dress on, for example, the football field. When the footballers are wearing different-coloured strips how much easier it is to know who scores the winning goal. As colour is used on the football field, so colour was very important in the beginnings of heraldry. Indeed it still is today. The colours on coats of arms are called tinctures and they have Norman-French names. Red is called gules, blue is azure, green is vert, purple is purpure and black is sable. There are two metals, gold (or) and silver (argent).

Describing a coat of arms is referred to as blazoning. First of all one names the colour of the background on the shield, called the field, then one names the charge and its colour, then one names the minor charges and their colours. A charge is anything which appears on a shield. The main charges however, are known as 'ordinaries'. A 'chief' for example, is a bar across the top, a 'pale' is a bar down the centre, and a 'fesse' is a bar midway down the shield.

The coat of arms or 'complete achievement' called 'Hunloke' would be blazoned like this:

Azure, a fesse or between three tigers heads erased of the same langued gules.

The langued gules are the red tongues.

The royal arms have evolved over centuries. It started with the two 'leopards' attributed to the first Norman kings (Gules, 2 leopards armed or rampant guardant). Armed or, simply means golden clawed and rampant guardant is an animal standing on its hind legs and looking out of the shield. A quartering (or dividing by four) of the shield happened about the time of Edward III and the shield shows the influence of France with the appearance of the fleur-de-lys. James I's royal arms showed England and France quartering the lion of Scotland and the harp of Ireland, but by the time of George III the fleur-de-lys had been lost and his coat of arms was similar to that of Queen Victoria, whose arms have been used by her heirs to this day.

I is for Ichthyology

Ichthyology, or the study of fishes, is a very colourful and interesting pastime. There are approximately nineteen thousand species of fish: a very wide-ranging group of creatures. They can be divided into two main groups - fishes with cartilage, the Chondrichthyes, and the fishes with bones, the Osteichthyes. Chondrichthyes fish include sharks, rays and dogfish. Bony fish include nearly all the freshwater fish and the most common sea-water fish, such as plaice, cod and herring. Bony fish are also referred to as teleosts.

The size of fish can vary enormously: an Indian Ocean goby for example, is only half an inch long, whilst a shark can be around fifty feet long. It is possibly the colour of fish and the variety of forms which is the most amazing aspect of ichthyology however. What could be more vivid than the bright blue and yellow of the Queen Angelfish. This fish is so-named because it has a 'crown' - a dotted black spot which is ringed in blue on its forehead. The Lemonpeel Angelfish is similarly brightly coloured. it is a bright yellow creature of the Indo-Pacific reefs. The form of the Foureye Butterfly fish is unusual, as is its colour. Its body is thin and shaped like a disc, whilst its colouring is unusual because of its fish-eye marking near the tail. The Tinkers Butterflyfish is a very handsome fish. It has yellow, black and white markings, but is very rare and only found in deep water off Hawaii. A Black Anemonefish has similarly striking markings: it is black and bright orange and has a broad blue-white bar on its head. Parrotfish are some of the most beautiful creatures you could ever wish to see. The Princess Parrotfish is a vivid blue-green, with a broad yellow area beneath its pectoral fin, and the Redband Parrotfish has an orange-red banded marking which is very striking. The intense red of a Bluebeard Goby with its blue bands is similarly intensely coloured and a species which is only found in tropical areas. Many fish are attractive, not only to look at, but also the sound of their names. There are Trumpetfishes and Squirrelfishes, Soldierfishes and Cardinalfishes, Damselfishes and Triggerfishes and even Snappers and Grunts. The wide range of fishes and their undersea world is a fascinating subject. It is what makes ichthyology such a rewarding and engrossing study.

J is for Jacinth

Jacinth is a reddish-orange gem and is a variety of zircon. Other zircons can be brown, red, green, blue or colourless. As well as the jacinth, there is the hyacinth, the starlite, the Jargon and the Zirconia, which are all classed as zircons. Jacinth can be found in the USA, Sri Lanka, Burma and Cambodia, as well a few other places in the world.

K is for Kakemono

A kakemono is a japanese hanging scroll. The scroll is mounted on rollers and usually depicts a japanese scene. Sometimes there is text, but more usually it is a painting of a typically oriental nature. The painting can either be done on silk or on paper. The japanese are noted for their painting on silk and genuine antique kakemonos can be very valuable, as well as very beautiful.

L is for Lyric Poetry

Lyric poetry was originally written to be accompanied by the playing of the lyre, a stringed instrument a bit like a harp. In Greece lyric poetry found its best exponents, including Sappho and Ibykos. The following poems are good examples.

As when the sun is set
and the moon with her rosy fingers
holds sway among the stars;
and her light is spread far across the salty sea
and far across the cornlands deep in flowers;
the dew is scattered abroad in loveliness,
roses bloom, and the delicate
antherisk, and the flowering honey-lotus;
while she goes to and fro remembering
her gentle Atthis, the young heart consumed with longing.

(Sappho born c. 612 BC)

In spring the kydonian quinces come into blossom
watered by river runlets in the maidens' inviolate garden,
and vine-flowers burgeon in the shade of leafy branches.
But for me Eros has no sleeping season.
Like the north-wind blazing down from Thrace with lightning,
suddenly he comes from Kyris' side with searing madness
dark, shameless and masterfully shakes my heart to its foundation.

(Ibykos c. 550 BC)

Shelley's poetry can be just as lyrical, though it is described as 'Romantic' and is written many centuries later, in the early nineteenth century.

There grew pied Wind-flowers and Violets,
Daisies, those pearl'd Arcturi of the earth,
The constellated flowers that never set;
Faint Oxlips, tender Bluebells, at whose birth
The sod scarce heaved; and that tall flower that wets
Its mother's face with Heaven-collected tears,
When the low wind, its playmate's voice, it hears.

And in the warm hedge grew lush Eglantine,
Green Cow-bind and the moonlight colour'd May
And cherry blossoms, and white cups, whose wine
Was the bright dew yet drained not by the day;
And Wild Roses, and Ivy serpentine
With its dark buds and leaves, wandering astray,
And flowers azure, black and streaked with gold,
Fairer than any wakened eyes behold.

(Percy Bysshe Shelley 1792-1822)

M is for Mythology

Myths and legends seem as old as time itself. Handed down over generations, these tales tell of great struggles and man's precarious position in the scheme of things. The myths of Greece are a particularly rich vein of literary culture, and they have influenced Art and other literature in many ways. Greek myths often tell of the exploits of the Gods. The supreme commander of the Gods was Zeus. Other Gods included Neptune (ruler of the sea) and Pluto (king of the underworld). Apollo was God of music and poetry, whilst Venus was the Goddess of love and beauty. Minerva was the Goddess of wisdom, or war that was justified and also of the arts of peace. Diana, the huntress, wandered the countryside with her silver arrows ever on the ready. Sometimes she would use these arrows to punish her enemies. Goddess of the light of the moon, she had a crown in the form of a new moon. Mars was the God of war, Mercury, the Messenger, and Ceres the Goddess of all growing things on earth. Pan was the God of shepherds. The myths that involved these Gods have survived many centuries and they are many and varied. There are also many heroes involved too, including Hercules, who had twelve labours to undergo. Perseus tangled with Medusa, the snake-headed Goddess, and Jason sought to win the coruscating prize of the Golden Fleece

One of the myths of Greek legend involved the nine Muses. These were the nine daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne. They are reputed to have been the inspiration to artists, musicians and poets in Greek life. Each Muse presided over one of the arts -e.g. Terpsichore was for dancing, whilst Erato was for love poetry. The Greeks had an entire system for living which was idiosyncratic to them and them alone. Greek myth was certainly one of its main concomitants. The Greeks were not the only culture to engage in mythical story-telling however. Here in England there was a similarly strong tradition surrounding the King Arthur myth. Two writers of the twelth century, Geoffrey of Monmouth and also Giraldus Cambrensis, relate the Arthur myth. Arthur is reputed to be the son of Uther Pendragon and Ygerna, and geographically he is placed in Tintagel in Cornwall, though much of the story as it unfolds takes place in Wales. A lot of pagan magic influences the King Arthur legend, and central to the myth is the character of Merlin, the magician. Linked to Merlin's magic is the Lady of the Lake, who is able, quite surreally, to produce the sword excalibur from the depths of the lake. Arthur's men are the Knights of the Round Table and these include Launcelot, Gawain and Galahad. They are all engaged in the quest for the Holy Grail. This is the quest to find the chalice used by Christ at the Last Supper. In conflict with this religious quest, is the tradition in which the legend is set - i.e. the courtly love tradition. King Arthur is above all a great love story, and his exploits with Guinevere tell of romance and betrayal. Linked with the romance of the tale is the heroism of the knights. Arthur has many conquests and his men are seen to be very brave. In Arthur's final battle, he defeats the embodiment of evil in Mordred, though dying himself, and this satisfies the tradition in which the story is set and also contemporary sensibilities. But with Arthur dying as well it is truly a tragic denouement.

In 1838 Charlotte Guest collected together some very old Welsh tales and called it The Mabinogion. The Mabinogion is a book which is based on the 'Red Book of Hergest', written in the fourteenth century. These are Welsh myths telling of the exploits of a variety of characters, including Pwyll, Branwen, Manawyddan and Math. The four Mabinogi are all interrelated to a greater or lesser extent.

A man who created a mythology of his own however is JRR Tolkien. 'The Fellowship of the Ring' is a trilogy of novels telling of the adventures of a plethora of mythological characters. The books are entitled 'The Lord of the Rings', 'The Two Towers' and 'The Return of the King'. Another book he has written in a not dissimilar vein is 'The Hobbit'.

N is for Numerology

The study of numerology can be used for many things, but one of its main uses is to give us an insight into a person's character. We all have what numerologists term a 'key number', which is derived from our name. By giving the letters of our names a numerical equivalent we can then add up all these numbers to find our key number. If, for example, we add up the numbers and get a two digit number, we then add the two digits together, and so on, until we arrive at a one digit number. Let's take an example.

Using this chart we can find the key number of Cheryl Cole.

A I Q J Y - 1
B K R - 2
C G L S - 3
D M T - 4
E H N - 5
U V W X - 6
O Z - 7
F P - 8

C H E R Y L C O L E
3 5 5 2 1 3 3 7 3 5

These add up to 37, 3+7 is 10, 1+0= 1

We have arrived at this one digit number by continually adding the digits. Number 1 signifies ambition, hence this person is very ambitious, but they have a tendency to be somewhat selfish, as they think this is the only way to get what they want out of life. However this person is single-minded and cannot be easily put off and with this goes a certain strength.

The following list is a very brief guide to the meaning of the numbers:

1 : Ambitious, but can be selfish, single-minded.

2 : Good nature but vacillating

3 : A harmonious nature. An outgoing and popular personality.

4 : Reliable and steady.

5 : Can hide their true feelings and can be attracted to things psychic.

6 : Loyal, reliable types who often find success.

7 : Creative and introspective. Attracted to the occult.

8 : Practical and successful, but can lose everything through recklessness.

9 : Successful and happy. A tendency to dominate others.

O is for Ornithology

Ornithology is the study of birds. There are many different species scattered throughout the world, and they inhabit many different kinds of habitat. The important thing about birds is of course that they can fly. One of the things which gives birds this aerial ability is the possession of air sacs distributed throughout their bodies. Most birds have nine of them Even the heaviest bird, the swan, is able to fly. It has to run up to its take-off for flight, but when it is doing so, reaches a speed of about fourteen metres a second. The fastest bird in flight is the peregrine (200 mph) and humming birds are the species which beat their wings the fastest just to stand still. While hovering at a plant source the wings beat very rapidly and their hearts can beat at 500 to 1200 times a second.

Ornithologists have often wondered how birds can tell where they are going. The answer seems to be that they follow the pole star and are guided by other stars in the sky, although it has been suggested that some birds are affected by the earth's magnetism. It is still a mystery how this works, but magnetite has been found in bird's brains, and this has possibly something to do with it. Birds can travel many miles in their lifetimes. A swift can travel four million miles during its existence, and during its journeys hardly ever touches down. It waits until it reaches the security of its nest. Birds can eat anything from grubs under tree bark to meat or fish. Owls eat voles whole, whilst penguin fish for food swimming under the sea. It is perhaps the honeyguide however which is most inventive when seeking out its meal of bee grubs and bees wax. It will enlist the help of a ratel, a badger-like creature, to get what it wants. Using its calls the honeyguide guides the ratel to the bees nest, where it then does the work for the bird. It starts digging and clawing to retrieve the honeycombs; something the honeyguide is incapable of doing alone. What the ratel has exposed the honeyguide has a chance to finish off. They are truly partners in crime.

In Japan the carrion crow has developed a way of cracking walnuts by using urban traffic. It waits at a pelican crossing until the light goes to red. It then comes down and places the walnut on the crossing. It flies back up to its perch and than watches as the light goes to green and the traffic moves forward, so crushing the walnut. It then waits until the light goes to red again and it can then swoop and retrieve its cracked nut and contents. This is an example of birds getting used to and indeed using for their own advantage the urban way of life. It is also testament to the incredible ingenuity of birds when accessing a food source. They seem to be able to work anything out; bird brains they are not. There are many instances of such amazing bird behaviour and by studying ornithology one can become party to many such bird secrets.

P is for Pyramid

The pyramids of Egypt are among the seven wonders of the world. What is truly amazing about them however is not the fact that they are so big or that they have lasted so long, but that these great buildings are built on mathematical principles. Also they are positioned with regard to the sun, telling us that the people of the time knew something of astronomy. After a lot of research by historians and Egyptologists we now know that the ancients mirrored on earth the sky and constellations above them. The Great Pyramid at Giza for example follows the star pattern of Orion. Built for King Khufu in c. 2528 B.C. the Great Pyramid is on the thirtieth parallel, i.e. it is one third of the way between the North Pole and the Equator, latitude 30 degrees north. The winter and summer, spring and autumn equinoxes were all taken into account when siting these buildings, thereby creating natural effects. Sometimes it would appear that the sun was rising from the very building itself.

Ancient astronomers would have been observing the heavens from the pyramids with much interest. But that is not all they would have done; we now know that they measured the earth. From their interest in astronomy the ancients knew about precession, i.e. the wobble of the earth's spin, which meant that it moved one degree every seventy-two years, displacing the position of all stars. This number seventy-two is significant in all kinds of mathematical calculations that they carried out. The height of the Great Pyramid multiplied by 43,200 gives us the measurement of the polar radius of the earth, and its base perimeter multiplied by 43,200 gives a figure very close to the equatorial circumference of the earth. In precessional terms seventy-two is the important number. 72 x 600 gives us 43,200, the figure used in the pyramid-earth ratio. Linked with this is the number 2160, the number of years required for the vernal point to transit one complete zodiacal constellation. This number could be multiplied by 2 to give 4320 and then by 10 to give us 43,200, a number we have already posited as significant. The ancient Egyptians knew about mathematics and the dimensions of the earth. It seems ridiculous that people used to think that they did not even know the earth was round - of course they did ! Ancient Egypt was a magnificent civilization which encompassed much skill and knowledge. To forget this is to do them a grave injustice.

Q is for Quinquereme

A quinquereme is an ancient galley with five sets of oars, a galley being the old term for a boat. We know that they were used in the first Punic war (264-241 BC). When the Romans were doing battle with Carthage, the Carthaginians had quinquereme battle-ships to assist their efforts. Unfortunately one of the galleys fell into the hands of the Romans. The Romans were so impressed with the quinquereme that they built their own, modelled on the Carthaginian prototype. They worked so enthusiastically that within two months one hundred ships were ready for battle. They improved on their model by fitting a kind of drawbridge, and had success at the battle of Mylae (260 BC), defeating the people whose fighting machine they had copied.

R is for Romans

When the Romans came to Britain circa 55 BC they found a rather primitive country of Celts, who were living mainly in small villages. Julius Ceasar was the first Roman to enter British territory and defeat the Britons. He was followed by Claudius who furthered the Roman claim to Britain in 43 AD. Soon after this, Hadrian built his wall to keep out the Scots who remained free from Roman rule.

The Romans were great builders, building roads, towns, houses, temples and villas. One of the main routes through Britain was the Fosse Way, a road moving troops, equipment etc. This road was built of stone, just one of a network of roads throughout Britain. The towns the Romans built sprang up where trade existed or where garrisons of troops were stationed. One such town was Cavella Atrebatum (modern name Silchester). Places had Latin names, as that was the language of the Romans, and they encouraged the Britons to adopt their language whenever they could.

What did the economy of Roman Britain consist of ? Mainly it depended on trade, and that meant farming and the resultant selling of fruit and vegetables in the towns. Also there was a fairly bouyany trade in the pottery industry, and there was also widespread mining. Linked to the farms in the country was the Roman villa. These were very civilized. They had drains, sewers and a form of underfloor heating known as the hypocaust. Particularly rich villas had piped water. A typical villa had two storeys, the lower built of stone, the upper built of wood. It would most likely have an open courtyard, a kitchen, a bath house, a latrine, a school room, a dining room and bedrooms above. Some families would have slaves, if they did not, the women would do the cooking, or sometimes the men would take a hand in it. The poor ate mainly bread and porridge, but the rich who lived in the villas would eat boar, chicken, swan, goose, pigeon etc. Often the men would congregate together minus the women to drink wine and enjoy themselves. All sections of the community would eat fresh fruit and vegetables. Milk was not drunk that much, and was only regarded as a drink for children or the sick. In the villas as well as drinking wine (usually coming from France), the Romans liked olive oil and also fish sauce which came from Spain.

Roman Britain was a civilization which lasted over four hundred years but eventually it became difficult to manage. The edges of the Empire were too distant from Rome and Britain became a casualty. Increasingly vulnerable to attack, there were invasions from Germany and Scandinavia. Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Vilings all fought for supremacy over Britain. The fabric of Roman Britain began to give way, the villas were left empty and eventually became derelict; the time of the Romans was over.

S is for Scrimshaw

When sailors in the early nineteenth century were on long voyages they badly needed a pastime to while away the long hours. They took up engraving on whalebone or the ivory teeth of the sperm whale. It became known as scrimshaw - i.e. both the act of carving on the whalebone and also the finished article. Scrimshaw products were made for sailor's loved ones, mothers, fathers, sweethearts etc., and were given as presents when the men returned from a voyage lasting anything upto five years. Using a penknife, or maybe one of the ship's tools, sailors created their own designs and could be very skilful. Popular subjects were maritime scenes, animals or figures of ordinary people. The sailors would make small boxes, spool-holders or possibly ivory heads for walking canes, but there was no restriction on the type of object that could get the scrimshaw treatment. These objects are now considered antiques and have a distinct place in the culture of American folk-art.

T is for Taxidermy

Taxidermy is the stuffing of dead animals. It has long been the practise to preserve certain animals for exhibitions in natural history museums, and once many museums engaged the services of their own taxidermist. Today however, a lot of museums have axed these posts and there are only 60 full-time taxidermists in Britain in total. Years ago it was common 'real' animals that were stuffed, now the move is to extinct animals and historical re-creations. Birds were once very popular subjects, today you are more likely to see a dodo or a dinosaur.

Taxidermy is a complex art and the work of the taxidermist should not be under-estimated. It takes many skills: a knowledge of anatomy, an understanding of natural history, great accuracy in drawing and sculpture, and also ability in tanning and dyeing. How then is it done ? First of all the taxidermist takes very accurate measurements of the anatomical structure of the dead animal. Then the skin must be very carefully removed without damaging it and treated with a preservative. Next the taxidermist must make a drawing of the animal's bodily form, including muscles, bones etc. Using this drawing as a guide, it is necessary to then make a framework out of metal and wood to which clay is added. The animal's body is then sculpted using this framework. The clay model is used to make a comparatively thin hollow casting of plaster and papier mache. Corresponding to the form of the animal, this casting is then covered with the original skin of the animal. It is glued and sewn together and specially produced materials are used for the eyes and the tongue. Another method of preserving animals is the freeze-drying technique. This is used mainly for smaller animals, such as birds etc. Whatever technique is employed the animals remain very alive looking, and this is testament to the great skill of the experienced taxidermist.

U is for United States of America

The United States of America is one of the largest countries in the world: by area it ranks fourth after Russia, Canada and China. By population (over 260 million) it is the world's third biggest country, about three-quarters of the people living in the many urban centers throughout the land. There is great variety of topography in the States: in northern Alaska are vast frozen wastes, while in the North Pacific Ocean are the tropical islands of Hawaii, or on the eastern coast southerly tip, the sunny beaches of Florida. It is in the southern states that hurricanes can sometimes cause great destruction. Further north however, it is more temperate, with Washington DC for example the capitol, having mild winters with occasional cold spells and hot summers. The States is a relatively new country. Formerly inhabited by Indians, it was not until the sixteenth century, when European explorers arrived and made settlements, that the country started to benefit from a cultural mix that made it what it is today. Spanish, Dutch, French and English men all claimed a stake in American territory, and it was not until Independence Day in 1776, that the United States finally shook off all such claims.

Tourism is important today in the economy of the USA, and national parks have been created around such awe-inspiring land features as the Grand Canyon, the Yosemite Valley and Wyoming's 'Old Faithful' geyser. The USA has possibly the world's most successful economy, and while tourism is significant, it is service industries which account for about three-quarters of the country's wealth. Having said that, America is not without its own natural resources to boost its economy still further. With fertile soils for farming, many great forests and mineral deposits, as well as plentiful coal, natural gas and of course oil, America is at the forefront of the world economy. It is also a world leader in many scientific and technological areas of discovery. The race to the moon was won by America, and NASA's space programme has broken new ground in exploring the uncharted regions of the universe.

Of the fifty-two states of America (each one a star on the star-spangled banner) it is perhaps the Sunshine state of Florida which has achieved world-wide recognition with the siting there of Walt Disney World, the Epcot Center, MGM studios and the Everglades National Park. It is also here, at Cape Canaveral, that all space missions are launched. In 1968 Apollo II was launched to put the first men on the moon. Not many people will forget Neil Armstrong's immortal words, 'a small step for man, a giant leap for mankind'. On the other side of the country is California, where another world famous phenomenon is situated - Hollywood. People have dreamt of this place for decades, and indeed it can be seen to be a dream factory where immortal legends such as Marilyn Monroe, Ingrid Bergman, Grace Kelly and comedians Laurel and Hardy back in the 1930's, first appeared. Next to New York City, Los Angeles is the biggest city in America and apart from Hollywood, a suburb of Los Angeles, San Francisco is often visited by tourists. With its steep hills and gradients it is a great cultural centre and home to the Golden Gate Bridge. But it is perhaps in Hollywood itself more than anywhere else that the great American dream still lives on.

V is for Vulcanology

Vulcanology is the study of volcanoes. There are many volcanoes in the world, Vesuvius, Etna and Stromboli in Italy, Hekla in Iceland, and Krakatoa in Indonesia amongst them. A volcano is a fissure in the earth's crust from which molten lava erupts. They look like small mountains. Volcanoes are associated with earthquakes, most notably in the Pacific 'ring of fire'.

Vesuvius is considered the most dangerous volcano in the world. It is near Naples in Italy, and many hundreds of thousands of people live beneath and around its summit. Pompeii suffered a terrible fate in ancient times when many people were killed. When the volcano in Sumbawa, Indonesia, erupted in April 1815 92,000 people were killed. This volcano was called Tambora and people were either killed directly from the eruption or because of the ensuing famine. This year (2010) ash from an erupting volcano in Iceland stopped flights in England and across Europe, because of safety issues.

W is for Wainscot

Wainscot is the wood panelling applied to interior walls. This panelling or boarding was popular many centuries ago in Elizabethan times, but it can still be seen today in certain homes. It is usually of oak, although other woods can be used. Wainscoting can be found in stately homes around the country or other historic houses in for example, libraries, studies, or meeting halls and chambers. To find it in modern-day homes is becoming increasingly rare.

X is for Xylophone

A xylophone is a percussive musical instrument. It consists of tuned wooden bars (as opposed to the metal bars of the glockenspiel) and these are struck with small hard or soft hammers. The bars of the xylophone are arranged like the keys on the piano, and the compass of the instrument is from middle C upwards for three octaves. The xylophone made its debut in the orchestra in 1874, when Saint Saens used the xylophone to represent dancing skeletons in his 'Danse Macabre'. Saint Saens also used the xylophone to good effect in the 'Carnival of the Animals'. The instrument has an effective solo in the 'Fossils' section of the work. Since Saint Saens's use of the xylophone it has become a regular member of the percussion section of the modern day orchestra.

Y is for Yggdrasil

Yggdrasil was the name of the World Tree in Norse mythology. The World Tree, or Great Ash, was a symbol of universality and a link between all the worlds that we find in the myths of the Norsemen. It had three main roots: one led to the kingdom of the Aesir or the Gods, another penetrated to the realm of the frost-giants, and yet another led to Niflheim or the land of the dead. Beneath the root which led to the abode of the frost-giants was the spring of Mimir. The waters of this spring were reputed to be endowed with wisdom and understanding. Another spring was set below the tree in the land of the Aesir. This sacred spring of Fate was called the Well of Urd. Here the Gods assembled and held their court of law. They all came to discuss matters on horseback and galloped over the rainbow bridge Bifrost, which glowed with fire. Only the Gods could cross this bridge, the giants could not. Near the spring of Fate lived three maidens called the Norns. They had power over the destiny of men and were called Fate, Being and Necessity. They watered the tree each day with pure water and put clay on the tree from the spring, thus preserving its life. However, as the tree grew it was threatened by creatures who resided in it. At the top of the tree was an eagle who had a hawk perched on its forehead. It is said that the flapping of the eagle's wings caused winds in the world of men. At the root of the tree was a serpent, with many other smaller snakes gnawing at the roots of Yggdrasil. The eagle and serpent were continually at war and a squirrel ran up and down the tree giving insults from one to the other. A great writer of Norse mythology, Snorri, writes in his Prose Edda about the torment of Yggdrasil, mirroring the suffering in the world :
The ash Yggdrasil endures anguish
More than men know.
A hart gnaws it on high, it rots at the side,
While Nidhoggr devours it below.

(Nidhoggr is a dragon)

As a symbol Yggdrasil is central to an understanding of the mythology of the Norsemen, only dying out when the idea of the Christian cross as a powerful symbol of suffering supplanted it.

Z is for Zanzibar

Zanzibar consists of two large islands and other islets in the Indian Ocean. It is part of Tanzania. The islands, Zanzibar and Pemba are surrounded by safe, shallow waters and coral reefs. The climate is tropical, moist and humid, and there are regular monsoon winds. Both islands have fertile soils, but Pemba is the richer of the two and consequently more intensively farmed. In fact the economy is based in agriculture. The main export is cloves and it is said Zanzibar is the supplier of all the world's cloves. Second to cloves coconuts are important and other tropical fruits are exported including bananas. The staple diet of the inhabitants is rice, but fishing is important. There are enough tuna and sardines to export to world markets. Though rich in farming produce, Zanzibar has in fact got no mineral resources apart from lime.

The earliest inhabitants of Zanzibar were most likely Africans from the nearby coast. Today three native tribes exist - the Watumbatu, the Wahadimu and the Wapemba, but there are also Arabs, Asians and Europeans living on the islands. It was the Sultan of Oman who established Zanzibar as his capitol in the early nineteenth century. He built his sultan's palace in the centre of the city and it can still be seen today. Years ago there was a slave trade based here and also an ivory trade, with the Portuguese being the first to set up a trading centre in the sixteenth century. Today massive concrete and glass apartment blocks have been built inland, while the city's old quarter still retains old winding streets full of characterful buildings from the past.